The Soviet ruble was issued by the State Bank of the USSR. The inflationary crisis effectively ended in March 1924 with the introduction of the so-called "gold ruble" as the country's standard currency. Ian earned his degree in Computer Science from Dartmouth College. The early Soviet hyperinflationary period was marked by three successive redenominations of its currency, in which "new rubles" replaced old at the rates of 10,000-to-1 (January 1, 1922), 100-to-1 (January 1, 1923), and 50,000-to-1 (March 7, 1924), respectively. Crude oil, a major export of Russia, declined in price by nearly 50% between its yearly high in June 2014 and 16 December 2014. Since 2000, many bimetallic 10 circulating commemorative coins have been issued. [13] The ruble had collapsed as a store of value and a medium of exchange, but nothing had been created to replace it. Privacy Policy. [a] Additionally, the Transnistrian ruble is used in Transnistria, an unrecognized breakaway province of Moldova. Raw data for these calculations comes from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Consumer Price Index (CPI), established in 1913. [2] A return was made by people in their daily lives to a primitive barter economy. According to one estimate, that of P. Popov of the Central Statistical Bureau of Soviet Russia, by 1920 the total production of Russian industry had fallen from a pre-war level of 6.059 billion gold rubles to the equivalent of just 836 million a decline of more than 85%.[10]. This table and charts use the earliest available data for each category. The current inflation rate page gives more detail on the latest inflation rates. The banknote is printed on light-yellow-coloured cotton paper. Compare these numbers to the US's overall absolute change of $13.96 and total percent change of 1,395.85%. [12] Peasants refused to sell their surplus products for money which could effectively buy nothing. Numbers ending in 2, 3 or 4 (except for 1214) are followed by genitive singular rublya, kopeyki. The pre . These notes are known as "Kerenki" or "Kerensky rubles". Currency converter: 1270-2017 In 1992, a final issue of notes was made bearing the name of the USSR before the Russian Federation introduced 5,000 and 10,000-ruble notes. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet ruble remained the currency of the Russian Federation until 1992. For example, if you started with $1, you would need to end with $14.96 in order to "adjust" for inflation (sometimes refered to as "beating inflation"). Basic Info. The top part of the note bears a transparent window that contains a holographic element. [20], In March 1922 Narkomfin abandoned the so-called goods ruble for a new unit of measurement, the gold ruble a new parallel official state currency redeemable in gold. By the beginning of the 19th century, copper coins were issued for 14, 12, 1, 2 and 5 kopeks, with silver 5, 10, 25 and 50 kopeks and 1 ruble and gold 5 although production of the 10 ruble coin ceased in 1806. [15], With the virtual collapse of money economy in favor of requisition, rationing, and barter, came a virtual abolition of banking in Soviet Russia. Both the spellings ruble and rouble are used in English, depending on the author's native dialect. Buffalo Nickel Value | Discover Their Worth - CoinStudy Special thanks to QuickChart for their chart image API, which is used for chart downloads. [55] Russian banks will start purchasing domestic ATMs with Elbrus processors in 2023, the mandatory share of Russian products in the purchase of ATMs was to be at least 18% for banks with state partnership, since 2022 it has grown to 20%.[56]. This article is about the currency used in various countries. You can find an inflation calculator from 1209 to 2017 at www.bankofengland.co.uk, and comparators (for the UK and various other countries) from 1270 to 2017 at measuringworth.com. In several languages spoken in Russia and the former Soviet Union, the currency name has no etymological relation with ruble. The ruble was the Russian equivalent of the mark, a measurement of weight for silver and gold used in medieval Western Europe. With mismanagement rampant and hunger sweeping the land, the value of the ruble, currency of the nation, essentially collapsed. In 1998 the Russian ruble was redenominated with the new ISO 4217 code "RUB" and number 643, and was exchanged at the rate of 1 RUB = 1,000 RUR. Soviet consumer goods for example from cars to stereos were of inferior quality and very. Cookie Notice The Soviet ruble officially replaced the imperial ruble in 1922 and continued to be used until 1993, when it was formally replaced with the Russian ruble in the Russian Federation and by other currencies in other post-Soviet states. manuals published during the late 1910s and early 1920s and unearthed no mention of foreign exchange options. The Soviet ruble (code: SUR) was the currency of the Soviet Union between 1917 and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. 1 RUB = 0.01 USD at the rate on 2023-03-04. These were followed by 50,000-ruble notes in 1993, 100,000 rubles in 1995 and, finally, 500,000 rubles in 1997 (dated 1995). [73], Not to be confused with the Armenian letter, Currency distribution of global foreign exchange market turnover, The total sum is 200% because each currency trade always involves a. Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States. 10. The absence of a wages policy combined with rivalry between departments to produce almost inextricable confusion. 15.12.98 63-. Such transactions are now of secondary importance, and may be successfully carried out by the central and local institutions of the Commissariat of Finance"[17], It was neither Marxist theory that was causing disintegration of the money economy nor the replacement of currency transactions by moneyless credits between state-owned firms, but rather hyperinflation. This included the symbol (the initials of "Russian ruble"), which received preliminary approval from the Central Bank. [c] This led to a 32 percent drop in the value of the ruble, which traded at an exchange rate of 120 rubles per dollar in March 2022. What is, for example, 100 1850's roubles in present day USD? [18], The People's Commissariat of Finance (Narkomfin) emerged as the leading bureaucratic agency seeking currency stabilization. If this number holds, $1 today will be equivalent in buying power to $1.06 next year. (Cyrillic) and the simple characters R (Latin)[16][17][18] and (Cyrillic) were used. On 11 December 2013, the official symbol for the ruble became , a Cyrillic letter Er with a single added horizontal stroke,[24][bettersourceneeded] though the abbreviation "." Report. [71] This, along with several other actions to control capital flow, coinciding with soaring commodity prices led to the ruble rallying to a record high in May 2022 that economists feel is unlikely to last. The system of banking credit still remains in force for small private industrial enterprise and the needs of individual citizens who place their money in state savings institutions. Apart from one ruble and one kopek coins other smaller and greater coins existed as well. The other consisted of the designs of stamps printed onto card with text and the imperial eagle printed on the reverse. A 6.5 percentage point interest rate rise to 17 percent[69] failed to prevent the currency hitting record lows in a "perfect storm" of low oil prices, looming recession and Western sanctions over the Ukraine crisis. What was 10 rubles worth in imperial Russia? - Quora [37] In September 2016, a vote was held to decide which symbols and cities will be displayed on the new notes. Also, you can make a reverse calculation and find out the current value of 1 Dollar in Russian Rubles. In 1860, silver 15 kopeks were introduced, due to the use of this denomination (equal to 1 zoty) in Poland, whilst, in 1869, gold 3 rubles were introduced. In 1917, the Provisional Government issued treasury notes for 20 and 40 rubles. As the value of the Soviet ruble crashed, the process of price calculation and wage payment remained chaotic, as historian E. H. Carr later observed, with Soviet workers frequently bearing the brunt of the exchange problem: "The resulting situation was extremely complex. The Russian ruble keeps rising, hitting a seven-year high. In truth it was not worth that much because the only real value of a currency is what you can buy with it. [2] Scarce resources were distributed by ration and were generally free. 3. It features a Cyrillic letter (transliterated as "Er" in the Latin alphabet) with an additional horizontal stroke. See: Nove, See: Maurice Dobb, "Chapter 2: The Economic Policy of the First Eight Months," in, Monetary reform in the Soviet Union, 192224, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyperinflation_in_early_Soviet_Russia&oldid=1137905016, This page was last edited on 7 February 2023, at 00:53. Initially an uncoined unit of account, the ruble became a circulating coin in 1704 just before the establishment of the Russian Empire.It was also the first currency in Europe to be decimalised in 1704, when it was divided into 100 kopecks. The inflation rate in Russia between 1993 and 2021 was 38,082.56%, which translates into a total increase of 38,082.56. how much was a ruble worth in 1900 - centralbarbearia.com.br ., 1893. Its existence became known in 1857 in foreign publications.[15]. This was followed by another in 1897. Disappointed by the lack of clear resources on the impacts of inflation on economic indicators, Ian believes this website serves as a valuable public tool. Thus one account ruble consisted of 100 Novgorod or 200 Moscow dengi (68g (2.2ozt) of silver). Russia holds about $640 billion worth of euros, dollars, yen and other foreign currencies in banks around the world. Higher earnings from oil and gas exports, which have surged as prices rise and demand in Asia makes up for cutbacks in Europe, have kept the ruble elevated. [8] The ruble lost 70% of its value against the US dollar in the six months following this financial crisis, from US$1 = 6 to approximately 20 . To answer these questions the Historical Currency Converter uses a short-cut, by comparing the worth of various sums in various currencies in their purchasing power of . The lack of confidence in the Russian economy stemmed from at least two major sources. According to one estimate, that of P. Popov of the Central Statistical Bureau of Soviet Russia, by 1920 the total production of Russian industry had fallen from a pre-war level of 6.059 billion gold rubles to the equivalent of just 836 million a decline of more than 85%. Coins are minted in the Moscow Mint and at the Saint Petersburg Mint, which has been operating since 1724. 1 RUB to USD 1 RUB = 0.01 USD at the rate on 2023-03-03. The end of War Communism and the establishment of the New Economic Policy was based upon the legalization of petty trade and a replacement of the hated policy of forced requisitioning of grain production with fixed taxation rates. based on ratio of gold content between ruble 0.77424 g vs. By 1880 Russian numismatists were well aware of the existence of Constantine rubles, but their first printed description was published only in 1886 Kalinin. In 1915, two kinds of small change notes were issued. [51] The NBU stated that the ban applies to all financial operations, including cash transactions, currency exchange activities and interbank trade. It opened in Saint Petersburg and in Moscow in 1769. [citation needed], In October 2009, a new 10 coin made of brass-plated steel was issued, featuring optical security features. About half that amount is located in the U.S. and Europe. [13] Facing starvation in the cities and the death of industry as peasant-workers returned to their villages, the Soviet state resorted to the use of force to obtain necessary grain to maintain its urban economy. Foreign Exchange Rates, 1913-1941: Just Looking At the Data It has gained about 35 percent so far this year, beating every major currency, and has more than doubled from its post-invasion low. 1,920 RUB is equal to 27.11 USD Rate: 0.0141 +0.000136 EPA. On 17 December 1885, a new standard was adopted which did not change the silver ruble but reduced the gold content to 1.161grams, pegging the gold ruble to the French franc at a rate of 1 ruble = 4 francs. Republication and duplication of text and coin images and all other Content of uCoin.net site is prohibited unless explicitly authorized by, 125th Anniversary - Birth of Janis Rainis, ' ' (One ruble one ruble). Historical Currency Converter - Historicalstatistics.org (Priced in Paper Roubles, the intrinsic value of other silver coinage is likewise informative.). To help put this inflation into perspective, if we had invested $1 in the S&P 500 index in 1920, our investment would be nominally worth approximately $24,205.39 in 2023. This page was last edited on 25 February 2023, at 02:59. Civil war ensued and the economy of the new regime became even more chaotic. The ruble has jumped 45% against the dollar since January, with one dollar worth 53.45 rubles as of Tuesday. [3] Unemployed and under-employed workers often took to the manufacture of small crafts items, often using stolen materials, to have something to trade for food during the economic crisis. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); As of Saturday, Mar 04, 2023, 09:24 PM GMT, 10000000 Russian Ruble = 132,626 US Dollar. Answer (1 of 8): In Soviet times the Soviet government set the exchange rate at one ruble one dollar. The main image of the reverse is a stylized image of the globe in the form of a football with green image of the Russian territory outlined on it. A transparent polymer security stripe is embedded into the paper to make a transparent window incorporating an optically variable element in the form of a snowflake. How much was 400 rubles worth in 1986? - Quora The abbreviations Rbl (plural: Rbls) in Latin[14][15] and . Read more about inflation and investment. Historically, the grivna, ruble and denga were used in Russia as measurements of weight. Only enter the numbers, any other characters or seperation marks will be trashed, in the box to the left of Russian Ruble (RUB), then click the "Convert" button; Click on "Russian Ruble (RUB)" link to convert Russian Ruble to all other currencies; Click on "US Dollar (USD)" link to convert US Dollar to all other currencies; Click on the link "Swap currencies" to convert from US Dollar to Russian Ruble; Click on the "Group converter" link to convert a group of numbers all at one time. Mexican (Spanish) piastres, basis for US Dollar Coin and nearly always at par, also circulated in Russia as money. The gold ruble, Russia's standard unit of currency, introduced in 1897 was equal to 0.774235 grams of gold. It was backed up by Putin's recent statement about how Russia is planning to trade gas and oil to unfriendly countries. March 25, 2012: The U.S. Dollar During WWI and the Recession . Select the period for plotting the chart. The highlight watermark is visible in the upper part of the banknote. The ruble or rouble (Russian: rubl; symbol: ; abbreviation: or . in Cyrillic, Rub in Latin;[1] ISO code: RUB) is the currency of the Russian Federation. To get the total inflation rate for the 103 years between 1920 and 2023, we use the following formula: Plugging in the values to this equation, we get: The average inflation rate of 2.66% has a compounding effect between 1920 and 2023. With the outbreak of World War I, the gold standard peg was dropped and the ruble fell in value, suffering from hyperinflation in the early 1920s. [9], With the eruption of civil war on a large scale in the Summer of 1918, the already grim economic situation in Soviet Russia deteriorated further. [9][10][11], With the outbreak of World War I, the gold standard peg was dropped and the ruble fell in value, suffering from hyperinflation in the early 1920s. Note that some locations showing 0% inflation may have not yet reported latest data. Historically, it was the currency of the Russian Empire and of the Soviet Union. The ruble sign is a currency sign used to represent the monetary unit of account in Russia. ", "Why Russians and the World Dislike the Ruble", "Ruble Whipsawed as Exporter Dollar Sales Can't Offset Rout", "Mocked as 'Rubble' by Biden, Russia's Ruble Roars Back", "Russians Bet Ruble Will Rise To Status of Dollar, Euro, Yen", ": : ", "The UTC just accepted the Russian ruble currency symbol", "Announcing The Unicode Standard, Version 7.0", "Update to support the new currency symbol for the Russian ruble in Windows", "News article about new 10-ruble coins being issued", " 10- ", "Commemorative and Investment Coins database, Bank of Russia", "Russia to issue 200- and 2,000-ruble banknotes", " 200 2000 ", "New 200 and 2000 ruble banknotes get their symbols", "Bank of Russia presents commemorative polymer banknote for the 2018 World Cup", "Bank of Russia to strengthen protection, upgrade design of banknotes", " 100 ", " 100", " 10 5 2023 ", "Guidelines for Cash Circulation Development in 20212025 approved", " 100- "", "No more naked Apollos on Russian banknotes, lawmaker says", "Russia's 100-Ruble Banknote With Naked Apollo Image Is Pornographic, Politician Argues", "Ukraine Refuses To Circulate New Russian Banknotes Depicting Crimea", "NBU Forbids Banks to Perform Transactions with Russian Banknotes and Coins Depicting Any Objects Located in the Occupied Territories of Ukraine", "Russian ATMs Reject New 100-Ruble Bill Kommersant", "New banknotes unable to work with Russian ATMs for years", " ", " ", " 10.12.2003 N 173- 18.07.2017 .", Chinese minister says China-Russia economic, trade co-op at new starting point, "Putin hopes Central Bank and government find balance in ruble exchange rate dynamics", "Here's Why the Russian Ruble Is Collapsing", "Online Prices Indicate Russian Inflation Spike After Ruble Decline", "Ex-Soviet republics hit by Russian economic crisis", "U.S. Won't Ease Sanctions to Stem Russia's Economic Crisis", "WRAPUP 2-Rouble crisis could shake Putin's grip on power", "Russia demands natural gas payments in rubles, leaves a loophole", "Russia's ruble is the strongest currency in the world this year", "Russia Mulls FX Interventions To Tame Ruble's Rise", "Triennial Central Bank Survey Foreign exchange turnover in April 2022", Historical Russian Ruble eXchange Rates: RUB, Images of historic and modern Russian bank notes, Historical and current banknotes of Russia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_ruble&oldid=1141444783, The language(s) of this currency belong(s) to the, 10 , 50 , 100 , 200 , 500 , 1,000 , 2,000 , 1, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000 rubles, 50, 200, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000 rubles, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, 50,000 rubles, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, 50,000, 100,000, 500,000 rubles. The design of the note is vertically oriented. [6] A popular theory deriving the word ruble from rupee is probably not correct.[7]. Therefore, the word "ruble" means "a cast with a seam". The new ruble then depreciated rapidly in its first year to US$1 = 20RUB before stabilizing at around US$1 = 30RUB from 2001 to 2013. Part and parcel of NEP would be a return to a functional currency and monetary payment of wages rather than compensation of workers through rations and free services, as was the case under War Communism. [45], Proposed to return into circulation in 2023 due to higher production cost of the 10 coin. This effect explains how inflation erodes the value of a dollar over time. With the value of the Soviet ruble plummeting precipitously from week to week, this chief financial and budgeting agency needed a mechanism for the calculation of wages of Soviet workers, which from the fall of 1921 were calculated in money rather than in-kind commodities. 10 and 50 kopecks were also changed from brass to brass-plated steel. 1,920 RUB to USD - Russian Rubles to US Dollars Here's how some cities fared in 1920 to 2023 (figures shown are purchasing power equivalents of $1): San Francisco, California experienced the highest rate of inflation during the 103 years between 1920 and 2023 (2.95%). In 1859 a paper credit ruble was worth about nine-tenths of a silver ruble[16] These circulated, in various types, until the revolution, with 500 ruble notes added in 1898 and 250 and 1000 ruble notes added in 1917. These coins began being issued in 1998, although some of them bear the year 1997. The Russian ruble keeps rising, hitting a seven-year high. The financial crisis in Russia in 20142016 was the result of the collapse of the Russian ruble beginning in the second half of 2014. [12] This symbol, however, fell into disuse by the mid-19th century. With the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, the Russian ruble was replaced by the Soviet ruble. The main images of the obverse are a boy with a ball under his arm and a goalkeeper diving for a ball. At the time of the establishment of the US currency until about 1798, there was Dollar-Rouble parity. Numbers ending in 59, 0, or 1114 are followed by genitive plural rubley, kopeyek. 1 kopeck (0,01 ruble): a box of matches, a glass of soda, two guitar mediators. [citation needed] This name persists in the Mordvin word for ruble, . Current, but not issued since January 2010. The trading of the Chinese yuan against the ruble has started in the Chinese interbank market, while the yuan's trading against the ruble was set to start on the Russian foreign exchange market in December 2010. "It's an unusual situation," said Jeffrey Frankel, professor of capital formation and . A snowboarder and some of the Olympic venues of the Sochi coastal cluster. For this reason, there have been several instances of (now worthless) Soviet and Russian ruble coins being used on a large scale to defraud automated vending machines in Switzerland.[5]. so he prepared a herbal medicine and sent it to me which i used for 2 weeks and i was cured everything was like a dream to me and my Herpes virus was totally gone, dr .Akhigbe, God bless you and give you more power and ability for more cure.I don't know if there is any one out there suffering for herpes virus or any of these diseases..DIABETES, CANCER, HIV/AIDS, HERPESHEPATITiSA AND B, HEART DISEASE, CHRONIC DISEASE,EPILEPSY, LUPUS, NOROVIRUS ,STROKE,PARKINSON'S DISEASE,SPINAL CORD INJURY, ECZEMA, KIDNEY DISEASE, ACME, BACK PAIN,EXTERNAL INFECTION, CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE, COMMON COLD, POLIO etc. We utilize mid-market currency rates to convert RUB against USD currency pair. Banknotes printed after 1997 bear the fine print " 2001." It is nearly identical to those of the 5-Swiss franc coin (31.45mm, 13.2 g cupronickel), worth approx. Keep an eye on this page and be aware of any changes. Each grivna was divided into four parts; the name "ruble" came from the word "cut" because the silver rod weighing 1 grivna was split into four parts, which were called rubles. The Soviet currency had different names in the different languages of the USSR; Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Transnistria have all retained the Soviet-era names for their new currencies. In the lower part of the Sevastopol side of the banknote in the green stripe there is a QR-code containing a link to the Bank of Russia's webpage, which lists historical information related to the banknote. . . . By calculating the value in 1920 dollars, the chart below shows how $1 is worth less over 103 years. [citation needed] The Bank of Russia stopped minting one-kopeck and five-kopeck coins in 2012, and kopecks completely in 2018. [16] With productive industry almost completely state-owned, the People's Bank (successor to the pre-revolutionary State Bank) had no credit function; rather, it acted as a clearinghouse for transmission of assets to industry, with funds primarily obtained through currency emission.[16]. Soviet banknotes had their value printed in the languages of all 15 republics of the Soviet Union. The examples of prices for 1973. The new banknotes of 500, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5, 3, and 1 ruble in value were to be exchanged for gold in any quantity. [52] Crimea is featured on three banknotes that are currently in circulation the 100 commemorative notes issued in 2015 and 2018, as well as the 200 note issued in 2017. In late February after the invasion, the ruble crashed to its weakest-ever level against the dollar, and Russia's central bank more than doubled interest rates, to 20 percent, as part of its . Breaking down these categories helps explain the main drivers behind price changes. The pre-revolutionary Chervonetz was temporarily brought back into circulation from 1922 to 1925.[12]. [6], The redenomination was an administrative step that reduced the unwieldiness of the old ruble[7] but occurred on the brink of the 1998 Russian financial crisis. In 1843, the Assignation Bank ceased operations, and state credit notes (Russian: , gosudarstvenniye kreditniye bilety) were introduced in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles. [2], Others say the ruble was never part of a grivna but a synonym for it. In other words, a dollar will pay for fewer items at the store. doc_daneeka 8 yr. ago. In other words, the purchasing power of 100 in 1993 equals 38,182.56 in 2021. The current exchange rate is 0.0141. Click on a category such as "Food" to toggle it on or off: For all these visualizations, it's important to note that not all categories may have been tracked since 1920. Silver 20 kopeks were introduced in 1820, followed by copper 10 kopeks minted between 1830 and 1839, and copper 3 kopeks introduced in 1840. Detroit, Michigan experienced the lowest rate of inflation during the 103 years between 1920 and 2023 (2.50%). How much is 1,920.00 - the one thousand nine hundred twenty russian rubles is worth $27.11 (USD) today or twenty-seven us dollars 11 cents as of 11:00AM UTC. The inflation rate in 1920 was 15.61%. (One ruble one ruble) Shape: Round: Alignment: Medal (0) Weight (gr) 12.8: Diameter (mm) 31: [14], In the words of one economic historian, "The only industry which thrived was that concerned with the production of paper money. More About How Much Is The Russian Ruble Worth How much was 800 Russian rubles worth in 1986? Top. As noted above, this yearly inflation rate compounds to produce an overall price difference of 1,395.85% over 103 years. In 1800, 62 US ships visited Russia: American trade was increasing. The coins depict the double-headed eagle without a crown, sceptre and globus cruciger above the legend " " ("Bank of Russia"). [70], Russia faced steep economic sanctions due to the invasion of Ukraine in early 2022. But the ruble continues to strengthen, which helps ease inflation but also puts pressure on Russias budget, which relies on energy sales that are often denominated in dollars. In 1992 the currency imagery underwent a redesign as a result of de-Leninization. [8] British Marxist economist Maurice Dobb observed: "If the existence of a ruling capitalist class was rooted in ownership and the differential advantage which that ownership gave over the ownerlessit followed that the continued existence of capital in private hands represented a continuance of the capitalist class and its influence"[8], Consequently, the Bolsheviks sought to expropriate major industry as an integral part of its program of overthrowing one class and replacing it with another, with an emphasis placed upon the nationalization of the largest scale industries held by the leading members of the capitalist class.

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